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Indian classical music has Vedic origins, and split in the 13th century into the two main traditions of Hindustani and Carnatic music. A later landmark in Indian mathematics was the development of the series expansions for trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, and arc tangent) by mathematicians of the Kerala school in the 15th century CE. In the 19th century, cheap Kalighat paintings of gods and everyday Bet365 life, done on paper, were urban folk art from Calcutta, which later saw the Bengal School of Art, reflecting the art colleges founded by the British, the first movement in modern Indian painting. Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern India from 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. During this period Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art. India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of Eurasia, especially in the first millennium.

Chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India. By living ethically, lay people could rise socially and morally in these religions. The settlement may have involved driving the preexisting people out or enslaving them. These cultures gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India.

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India contains a wide array of musical practices, including many different folk musics from different regions. Trigonometry was further advanced in India, and the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there. Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra. The decimal number system in use today was first recorded in Indian mathematics. In the classical period of Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1200 CE), important contributions were made by Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara II, Varāhamihira, and Madhava.

This forced the national parties to create coalition governments. It has six national parties, for example the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). It is the largest democracy in the world by the number of people.

Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious sculpture in durable materials, or coins. A very large majority of Indians have their marriages arranged by their parents or family elders. Multi-generational patrilineal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas. The Constituent Assembly of India abolished untouchability in 1947, the Republic of India did more formally in 1950, and India has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives related to caste. India bears a disproportionately large burden of the world’s tuberculosis rates, with World Health Organization (WHO) statistics for 2022 estimating 2.8 million new infections annually, accounting for 26% of the global total. In India’s higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically disadvantaged.

• The Vijayanagara empire was another significant Indian empire.
• The major secular holidays in India are Independence Day (August 15), Republic Day (January 26), and Gandhi Jayanti (October 2, Mahatma Gandhi’s birth anniversary).
• Female infanticide in India, and lately female foeticide, have created lop-sided gender ratios; the number of missing women in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63 million during the period 1964–2014, faster than the population growth during the same period.
• Similarly, the Republic of India does not recognise the Pakistani and Chinese parts of Kashmir.
• The rights promised to Indians were granted slowly, but technological changes were introduced, and modern ideas of education and the public life took root.

Simultaneously, the vast Tethyan oceanic crust, to its northeast, began to subduct under the Eurasian Plate. India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the Indian tectonic plate, and a part of the Indo-Australian Plate. The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks, and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of faraway markets. After the rebellion was suppressed in 1858, the East India Company was disbanded, and the British government began to directly administer India. By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture. By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, several European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts.

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The ancient Greeks called Indians as Indoi (Ἰνδοί), which means “the people of the Indus”. Most of Indians follow Hinduism at 80%, but people of different religions such as Buddhism, Sikhism and Islam also live there. India has reduced its rate of poverty but its economic inequality has increased. According to New World Wealth, India is the fifth richest country in the world with a total individual wealth of $12.6 trillion. India has the fourth largest economy by nominal GDP, the third largest by GDP (PPP) and is one of the fastest growing major economy. India has the second largest military force in the world and is also a nuclear weapon state.

Earnest attempts have been made to instill a spirit of nationhood in so varied a population, but tensions between neighboring groups have remained and at times have resulted in outbreaks of violence. Religious minorities, including Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Jains, still account for a significant proportion of the population. As a result of the Indian Independence Movement, British rule came to an end on August 14-15, 1947, celebrated annually as Independence Day. Especially important was the coming of Islam, brought from the northwest by Arab, Turkish, Persian, and other raiders beginning early in the 8th century ce. Throughout its history, India was intermittently disturbed by incursions from beyond its northern mountain wall. It is known from archaeological evidence that a highly sophisticated urbanized culture—the Indus civilization—dominated the northwestern part of the subcontinent from about 2600 to 2000 bce.

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The sultanate’s raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire. The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India. After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity, repeatedly overran South Asia’s north-western plains,r leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206. Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation. The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200 CE, was defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity. By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.

The Constitution of India was drafted by the Constituent Assembly of India with uncommon speed and absence of irregularities between 1946 and 1949. After losing the majority in the 2024 general election, the BJP formed a coalition government with its NDA partners. Singh became the first prime minister to be re-elected after Jawaharlal Nehru in 1962. Congress emerged as the largest single party and formed a coalition, the United Progressive Alliance (UPA).